Authors: A. Patrick Behrer, Joshua Goodman, J. Parker Goyer, R. and Jisung Park
Project Summary
Special education serves more than one in seven U.S. students, yet its causal impact remains understudied. In this paper, we estimate the effect of individualized supports with an event-study design that tracks achievement around initial classification. The research shows students’ scores decline prior to placement and rise sharply afterward. Overall, individualized supports substantially increase learning productivity.
Key Findings
Air pollution exposure measurably slows learning
1 year of air pollution exposure lowers PSAT scores by 14–19% of typical annual growth
Moderate pollution matters more than heavy pollution
Pollution on school days matters more than summer pollution
Air pollution exposure widens achievement gaps
Effects are 3 times larger in socioeconomically disadvantaged schools
Effects are large for Black & Hispanic students, not observed for White & Asian students
